MOTIVATION
10. 1 Introduction
When you come from school, you feel hungry and want to eat something. You want to eat because there is a force which compels you to have food. Likewise if a question is asked that why do you want to join a college? The answer can be given in various ways like
you want to learn or
you need a degree to get a good job.
You may also want to join college to have lot of friends. This basic question of the 'why of Behaviour' or factors which compel us to do certain activities, fakes us study the factor called 'Motivation'. In this chapter you will be studying about what is motivation and frustration the basic concepts related to motivation, types of needs, conflict.
10. 2 Objectives
After reading this chapter you will be able to :
10. 3 Motivation
All human behaviour arises in response to some forms of internal (physiological) or external (environmental) stimulation. These behaviors are purposeful or goal directed. These behaviors are the result of the arousal of certain motives. Thus motivation can be defined as the process of activating, maintaining and directing behaviour toward a particular goal. The process is terminated after the desired goal is obtained.
The process of initiating action in the organism is technically called motivation. Motivation refers to a state that directs the Behaviour of the individual towards certain goals. Motivation is not directly Observable. It is described as an inferred process and is called so by the psychologists to explain certain behaviors. When we ask "What motivates a person to do a particular thing", we usually mean why does he behave as he does. In other words, motivation as popularly used, refers to the cause or why of behavior. Since psychology is the study of human Behaviour, motivation is an important part of psychology.
Motivation refers to a state of a person that directs Behaviour of the individual towards certain goals.
10. 3. 1 Nature of Human Motivation
Motive or motivation are now the most frequently used and accepted terms in psychology to refer to the basic causes which move or activate the organism. An important characteristic of motives is that we never observe them directly. We infer the presence of motivation when we see that people work toward certain goals .For example, we might observe that. a student works hard at almost every task that comes to him/her; from this we infer that he has the motive to achieve. But if we want to be reasonably sure that our inferences about achievement motivation is correct, we must make enough observations of the student's" Behaviour to rule out other possible motives.
We are not aware of all our motives. Behaviour can be governed by "unconscious motives also. If our information about motives is correct, we tool for explaining behaviour. We explain our everyday behaviour in terms of motives. Why do you go to college ? The answer usually is given in, terms of your motivation. You are there because you want to leam; you need a degree to get a job; also because it is a good place to make friends. You may be in college because you think it is. expected of you .You are in college in response to one or more of these needs. Someone who understands your motives, understands why you do the things you do.
Motives also help us make predictions about behaviour. We infer a group of person's Behaviour. If this information is correct, we are in good position to make predictions about what person will do in future. A person who seeks to hurt others will express hostility in many different situations . A person who needs the company of others will seek it in many ways and situations. Thus, motives may not tell exactly what will happen but they give us an idea about range of things a person will do. A person with a need to achieve will work hard in school, in play, 'in business and in many other situations. If yoti know that Rama has a high achievement need then you can make reasonably accurate predictions about how that need for achievement will be expressed in Rama's behaviour. Thus, motives are general states that enable us to make predictions about Behaviour in many different situations.
10. 4 Some basic concepts about motivation
The force or push which activates the organism to action has been variously called need, motive, goal, instinct, drive or desire. It is necessary to distinguish between the meaning of these terms.
(a) Needs :
A need is a condition of lack or deficit* of something required, which the organism finds necessary to satisfy in order to maintain its existing balance.
Needs are of different types, the need for food or water is a physiological need, which arises out of-lack or deficit of food or water in the organism. The need for excretion and urination which are also physiological needs are due to the organism's necessity to eliminate waste matter from the body. The need for contact with other persons around is a social need. The other social needs may be need for prestige, money, status, affection, self-esteem, and so on. A person becomes more aware of his needs when there ia a deficit in their fulfillment. In other words, when an individual is in a state of deprivation he recognizes his needs. When you are hungry, you need food, when you are thirsty you need water. In these cases you are in a state of deprivation and your bodily 'system suffers from imbalance. The needs may be broadly categorised as, primary basic or physiological needs and secondary or social needs. Need for food, water, sex, sleep and rest, elimination are primary needs. Need for achievement, affiliation, power are social needs.
(b) Motives :
The term 'motive' refers to goal directed behaviour and energizing conditions within the organism that drives behaviour. It is generally used to refer to certain conditions within the individual which, besides arousing , actually predisposes him to respond, or behave in a way appropriate to the satisfaction offends. Motives direct the activity of the individual towards his goals. Therefore, sometimes hunger and thirst are referred to as motives, If you are deprived of food for 24 hours, and when provided food, you rush because you are motivated by hunger.
(c) Goal :
A goal is something you think, will contribute to the satisfaction of 'a need or motive. If hunger is a need, eating food is a goal. Most of our Behaviour is goal directed. Goal is related to the need. However, in a few cases, Behaviour is guided by intrinsic motive. It means the Behaviour does not need external goal. It is satisfying and enjoyable by itself.Some people may like to sing, dance or play just for the sake of singing, dancing or playing. They like such activity.
(d) Instincts :
An instinct is an innate biological force that predisposes the' organism to act in a certain way. At one time all -of our Behaviour were supposed to be the result df instincts. Some of the instincts identified are fight, repulsion, curiosity, self-abasement, acquisition etc. It was thought that instincts were inherited and compelling sources of conduct, but can be modified by learning and experience.This term is no more used in relation to human Behaviour. Animal Behaviour is sometimes explained using this term.
(e) Desires :
Desire connotes purely psychological feelings which may or may not have physiological sources. It is often used to denote what one is wanting to have. Generally "desire" word is used in a basic sense of strong inner urges. Indian psychological literature uses this term to explain all misery arid stress.
10. 5 Types of needs
It is difficult to classify needs into distinct categories because the Behaviour displayed by an individual at a given time is not the outcome of a single motive. Many motives contribute to it. But on the basis of information gained through, the analysis of human Behaviour, psychologist have attempted to classify human needs into two broad categories:
The primary needs are called physiological needs because to a large extent they are rooted in the physiological state of the body. It includes mainly hunger, thirst, sex, temperature regulation, sleep and pain.
The secondary or soico-psychogenic needs are unique to human beings. Many of these motives are learned and they drive the individual toward special kind of Behaviour. Since these needs are learned motive, states, their strength differs greatly from one individual to another. Some of the important socio-psychogenic motives are power, affiliation, achievement and approval.
10. 6 Hierarchy of needs
Several theories have been given by various psychologists to explain needs and motivation. One such theory was given by Abraham Maslow. He critically examined the traditional approach and argued that needs are arranged in on a ladder-like steps. These include both the major kind of needs, physiological and sociopsychogenic in a systematic manner.
Maslow developed a rising order of needs from physiological to self-actualisation needs. The order of needs starts from basic survival or lower order needs to higher order. As one type of need is satisfied another higher order need will emerge and become operative in life; The hierarchy is as follows :
Maslow'a hierarchy of needs
10. 6. 1 Physiological needs : The most potent of all the needs are the physiological needs. They are hunger, thirst, sex, temperature regulation and rest. According to Maslow when these physiological needs are deprived for a long period, all other needs fail to appear.
Among the physiological needs, hunger is the most basic and strongest of human needs. The human body has evolved many bodily mechanisms that regulate actions necessary for maintaining the physiological balance. This process of maintaining physiological balance ia called homeostasis. We must eat to live. The bio-chemical processes which sustain life get their energy and chemical substances from food. Food deprivation results in contractions in the stomach which are felt by the individual as hunger pangs. When this happens, the individual spends energy in trying to get food. Factors like habits .and social customs can also influence eating Behaviour.
We can go without food for weeks but we cannot live without water for more than a few days. The brain directs the individual to obtain water. Sex need differs in many respects from hunger and thirst. Sex is not vital to the survival of the organism but is essential to the survival of the species.
10. 6. 2 Safety needs : When the physiological needs are satisfied safety needs become the dominant force in the individual. Safety heeds are mainly concerned with maintaining order and security, to feel secure and safe and out of danger.
10. 6. 3 Love and Belongingness needs : The needs of this category emphasize the basic psychological nature of human beings to identify with the group life. These are needs of making intimate relationship with other members of the society. The people want to be an accepted member of an organized group, need a familiar environment as in family. These needs are dependent on the fulfilment and satisfaction of previous categories of needs.
10. 6. 4 The esteem needs : Esteem needs are divided into two categories
The other type esteem needs are need to achieve, to be competent, to gain approval and recognition. The need to feel superior to others falls under this category. For fulfilling this, the person may buy good and costly clothes.
10. 6. 5 Self actualisation : The highest heed in the hierarchical system, proposed by Maslow is self actualisation. It is the desire to utilize one's personal capacities, to develop one's potentialities to the fullest and to engage in activities for which one is well suited. One should realise and be satisfied that he has achieved what he is capable of.
Self actualisation is only possible when the basic needs of the person are met to the degree that they neither distract nor consume all available energy. When the person succeeds in satisfying his lower order needs, only then he can act upon his higher order needs.
In this hierarchy it is assumed that the lower order dominates man until that level is fairly satisfied; then comes the next one and so on. However, Maslow explains that every individual does not follow this hierarchy step by step; exceptions do arise. An individual sometimes risks his life to save someone or to save a valued object by defying his own safety needs. There are certain examples in Indian history when women sacrificed their lives to save their honour. There had been freedom fighters who starved themselves to death fighting for the freedom of the country. Here the higher needs superceded the hunger and thirst needs. Sometimes individuals reject love, family, friends etc. by committing suicide, thus defying the needs of love and sense of belongingness.
The hierarchy, however, does not imply that lower order needs become dormant once they are satisfied and the higher order needs become active.
10. 7 Achievement motivation:
One of the important needs present to some degree in all human beings is the " need for achievement" or the need to attain increasingly higher level of performance. People in whom the need for achievement is strong seek to become difficult word and to improve their task performance. They are task oriented and prefer to work on tasks that are challenging and on which their performance can be evaluated in some way. It may be by comparing it with other person's performance in terms of some standards. Achievement motivation can be seen in many areas of human efforts for example, on the job, in school or in sport competitions.
The differences in early life experiences cause variations in the amount of achievement motivation. The expectations parents have from their children also play an important role in the development of achievement motivation. Parents who expect their children to work hard encourage them and praise them for achievement directed behaviour.
The degree of achievement oriented behaviour depends on many factors. One of these is " fear of failure". It inhibits the expression of achievement behaviour. When some one is successful in school, sports and other professions, we say that the achievement motivation is very strong in him or her. People do well in exams or cometitions because of external rewards or to avoid punishments. These are actually the two forms of motivation which affect achievement. These are:
Intrinsic motivation : In this form motivation arises from the satisfaction due to of the Behaviour itself, for our sake.
Extrinsic motivation : In this form of motivation in which motivation arises because of external rewards or for avoidance of punishment.
The need for achievement is a motive to accomplish things and to be successful more and more in performing tasks.
10. 8 Frustation and conflict
You must be aware that it is not always easy to satisfy needs. You may have variety of needs at a time and our behaviour does not depend upon the satisfaction of a single need at a given time. We all face certain difficulties in attempts to satisfy our needs. We sometimes meet with failures. Things prevent us from reaching our goals. And when our needs are not satisfied, we get frustrated. ,
Frustration is the feeling within an individual of being blocked in the attempts of an individual to satisfy needs which he considers significant Frustration refers to the blocking of behaviour that is directed towards a goal. The individual displays some sort of disturbed Behaviour when he is prevented from fulfilling his needs, desires and aspirations. If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional Behaviour often results and the person may feel anxious, depressed or angry. For example, if you. want to go to a movie or want to play and if your parents refuse permission, you may show some kind of disturbed Behaviour such as anger and shouting.
Generally there are three main sources of frustration. These are :
We all confront some degree of conflict in every stage of our life. We sometimes face a situation where we are supposed to choose between two or more alternatives. For example, we may have to decide whether to boy a book or go to a movie. On the one hand you may like to play and get company of your friend, and on the other, if you study for the examination you may be successful in the exams. The motive to play and get company of the friend is thus in conflict with the motive to be successful in examination.
Types of conflict : When a person is in conflict and frustration he is tense. The emotional response from the conflict and frustration is anxiety. Frustration can arises from three kinds of conflict which are called as "approach- approach conflict" "avoidance-avoidance conflict" and "approach-avoidance conflict"
An approach-approach .conflict is a conflict between two positive and equally attractive goals. It is caused when we have two pleasurable goals within our reach. We have to choose one from these The example of this kind of conflict may be when you are offered admission in two equally attractive courses of study for higher education and you have to decide between these two.
The second type of conflict is avoidance-avoidance conflict. This occurs when we have to decide between two equally undesirable and negative goals. For example such a conflict may arise when you have to choose between difficult for you or equally disliked by you.
In approach-avoidance conflict, we are both attracted and repelled by the same goal. It arises when there are both desirable and undesirable feelings associated with a single goal. For example you want to marry a girl to whom you love but repelled because your parents are not agreeable.This kind of conflict is most difficult to resolve and brings emotional discomfort.
Frustration refers to the feeling experienced when behaviour that is directed towards a goal is blocked. The major sources of frustration are environmental, personal and conflict of motives. There are three types of conflicts.
(i) Approach—approach conflict— when these is conflict between two positive equally attractive goals.
What you have learnt:
Motivation refers to the driving and pulling forces which result in persistent behaviour directed towards a goal Motives are inferenceal from observations of behaviour. The primary needs such as hunger,! thirst and sex, have their origin in the physiological state of the body. Hunger motivation may be, initiated when blood sugar level falls below certain point. A decrease in the volume of the blood dufr| water loss causes to thirst. Sexual motivation depends on sex hormones.
Socio-psychogenic motives such as need for power, affiliations achievement and approval are learned motives and involve other people. The need for achievement is a motive to accomplish things and to be successful in performing tasks. Power motivation is a social motivation \n which the goal is to influence, control, persuade, lead, charm others and enhance one's own reputation in the eyes of others.
Intrinsic motives are those activities for which there is no apparent \reward but one gets enjoyment and satisfaction in doing -these activities. Competence is an intrinsic motivation. Motives are often blocked or frustrated. The major sources of this frustration are environmental factors, personal factors ,and conflict. Three types of conflicts are. a) approach- approach conflict b) avoidance-avoidance conflict, and c) approach-avoidance conflict.
Terminal Questions
Key to Intext Questions
10. 1
1 a) Action
10. 2
10. 3
Hints to Terminal Exercises